Defining Maori Groupings

Chief Judge Joe Williams (who was the Chief Judge of the Maori Land Court) described four different groups of Maori people:

• The first group is described as the ‘traditional Maori core’. This group is the most ‘enculturated’, or familiar with their culture, is often rural dwelling and speaks both Maori and English.
• The second group is described as ‘primarily urban’ and bicultural.
• The third group is referred to as ‘unconnected.’ People in this group may be biologically Maori but know little of their Maori heritage and culture.
• The fourth group is described as a group of people who are socially and culturally indistinguishable from Pakeha.

Williams, J. (2000). The nature of the Maori community. Paper Presented to PSSM Conference, New Zealand State Services Commission. October, 2000. Wellington

Mauri Tu Mauri Ora Project - Why culture matters to Maori health!

October 19, 2011

Why culture matters to Māori health

Improving Māori health could come down to a stronger sense of cultural identity.

Key health indicator statistics show Māori are disproportionately affected by heart and respiratory diseases and cancer; they are also at higher risk from blood-borne viruses (BBVs) and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Researchers from the Te Kotahi Research Institute at the University of Waikato are investigating innovative ways to change those statistics by going back to the basics of policy development, service delivery, and cultural identity.

The Mauri Tu, Mauri Ora project, funded over five years by the Health Research Council, is part of an international collaborative health study of Indigenous peoples in New Zealand, Canada and Australia.

The study has explored resistance and resilience – the ways in which Indigenous communities use their strengths to protect themselves from infections such as hepatitis C and HIV, and enhance their wellbeing.

Project researcher Mera Penehira is putting the finishing touches to the final report, and says the international collaboration has been an exciting opportunity. “It’s more meaningful to compare Māori with other Indigenous peoples, and it shows that in some areas, such as the prevalence of blood-borne viruses, we’re doing relatively well.”

Key change points, says Ms Penehira, are at the policy level, service provider level, and community level.

“We discovered a mismatch between policy and service provision,” she says. “Service providers are sometimes not adequately resourced, or they are ill-informed about policy, or they don’t get the monitoring required to ensure they actually implement culturally appropriate services.”

But the research also revealed the importance of a strong sense of identity.

“People who make up the statistics tell us there’s a link between positive cultural identity and well-being,” says Ms Penehira. “It’s not just a health issue, they’re saying being Māori is a key factor in providing protection against HIV, STIs and blood-borne viruses.”

This holistic view of Māori health and wellbeing also helps encourage discussion of risk factors in sexual and reproductive health.

“A critical part of change is to remove the silencing around this topic,” says Ms Penehira. “If we can get people talking about what is at the core of good sexual and reproductive health, things like, whakapapa (genealogy), tamariki (children) and oranga (relationships, health and wellbeing), then we can better protect ourselves against risk.”

The final Mauri Tu, Mauri Ora report will be available from the Health Research Council in early 2012.

Cultural Identity - Excerpts from the 2010 Social Report

Culture refers to the customs, practices, languages, values and world views that define social groups such as those based on nationality, ethnicity, region or common interests. Cultural identity is important for people’s sense of self and how they relate to others. A strong cultural identity can contribute to people’s overall wellbeing.

Cultural identity based on ethnicity is not necessarily exclusive. People may identify themselves as New Zealanders in some circumstances and as part of a particular culture (eg Māori, Chinese or Scottish) in other circumstances. They may also identify with more than one culture.

[N]ew Zealand is a multicultural society...Māori culture has a unique place...[and] under the Treaty of Waitangi, the Crown has an obligation to protect the Māori language.

Defining....identity is not simple. New Zealand is a diverse nation, made up of many cultural groups, with many different customs and traditions. While people may describe themselves as “New Zealanders”, how they define their “New Zealand-ness” will vary from person to person. For example, some people might see a New Zealand identity in aspects of New Zealand’s history or in New Zealander’s achievements in sporting, artistic or other endeavours, while others might see it through a sense of national characteristics or traits, or through national symbols and icons. Māori culture may form one aspect of national identity, since it is both unique to New Zealand and a part of our identity in the outside world.

Cultural identity is an important contributor to people’s wellbeing. Identifying with a particular culture helps people feel they belong and gives them a sense of security. An established cultural identity has also been linked with positive outcomes in areas such as health and education.87 It provides access to social networks, which provide support and shared values and aspirations. Social networks can help to break down barriers and build a sense of trust between people, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as social capital.

However, strong cultural identity expressed in the wrong way can contribute to barriers between groups. And members of smaller cultural groups can feel excluded from society if others obstruct, or are intolerant of, their cultural practices.

Maori Cultural Identity Tool - Houkamau and Sibley

The Multi-dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement (MMM-ICE) is a self-report(Likert-type) instrument designed to assess six distinct dimensions of identity and cultural engagement inMāori populations:

The MMM-ICE is a quantitative index of identity that can be readily compared across independent studies of Māori peoples. The index was developed by Dr. Carla Houkamau and Dr. Chris Sibley in 2010; both of whom are senior lecturers at The University of Auckland. The MMM-ICE aims to provide a culturally sensitive, valid and reliable self-report measure of Māori identity and cultural engagement embedded within an Indigenous Māori context; ‘who’ a person is as Māori, how they ‘fit in’ with others in the socialworld and what that means in terms of behavior. The MMM-ICE is associated with the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study.

The Six Dimensions[edit]

Group Membership Evaluation[edit]

Group Membership Evaluation reflects the basic premise of social identity theory that individuals strive for favorable evaluations of their group or a ‘positive social identity.’^[1] The more positively one’s group is perceived, the greater the positive evaluations individuals can draw from when interpreting themselves. Having a positive sense of self as Māori has the psychological advantage of promoting well-being. Conversely, if people belong to a low status group, they may be prone to a ‘negative social identity’ because they may attach those negative evaluations to themselves.^[2] Thus, having a negative sense ofself as Māori has a psychological disadvantage, as group members internalize the evaluations held about the group category into their own self-concept. Since social identities are not only descriptive but they areevaluative, the position of one’s group within the social hierarchy is viewed as central to the self-experience of individual members.^[3]

Sample Group Membership Evaluation items[edit]

• I reckon being Māori is awesome.
• I love the fact that I am Māori.
• Being Māori is cool.
• I don't really care about following Māori culture. (reverse coded)
• I wish I could hide the fact that I am Māori from other people. (reverse coded)
• My Māori ancestry is important to me.
• Being Māori is NOT important to who I am as a person. (reverse coded)
• Being Māori is NOT important to my sense of what kind of person I am. (reverse coded)

Socio-Political Consciousness[edit]

Socio-political consciousness reflects a perception of the continued importance of historical factors for understanding contemporary intergroup relations; and how actively engaged the individual is in promoting and defending Māori rights given the context of the Treaty of Waitangi.

Issues include support for (or lack thereof) a Māori political party, resource-specific issues relating to theresource allocation and reparation for Māori based on historical injustice, issues relating to the symbolic representation of Māori culture and one’s positive (or negative) affective evaluations of Māori.

A high score on this scale reflects the belief that Māori need to remain loyal to their group and politically unified. Individuals, who score high on this scale are more supportive of The Māori Party (a political partyin New Zealand that represents Māori), and least supportive of The New Zealand National Party (the mainstream centre-right political party currently in power), for example. Such individuals typically identify themselves as both sole-ethnical Māori and ancestrally Māori.

A low score on this scale reflects the belief that Māori should operate independently and that Māori andPākehā historical relations are irrelevant for understanding contemporary ways of 'being' Māori. Those who score low on this scale will generally endorse the dominant ideological positions, political attitudes, and intergroup attitudes of sole-ethnic Europeans. Individuals who score low on this scale tend to identify themselves solely as European but have Māori ancestry.

Sample Socio-Political Consciousness items[edit]

• Māori would be heaps better off if they just forgot about the past and moved on. (reverse coded)
• All of us, both Māori and Pākehā, did bad things in the past - we should all just forget about it. (reverse coded)
• I'm sick of hearing about the Treaty of Waitangi and how Māori had their land stolen. (reverse coded)
• I think we should all just be New Zealanders and forget about differences between Māori and Pākehā. (reverse coded)
• I think that Māori have been wronged in the past, and that we should stand up for what is ours.
• What the European settlers did to Māori in the past has nothing to do with me personally. I wasn't there and I don't think it affects me at all. (reverse coded)
• I stand up for Māori rights.
• It's important for Māori to stand together and be strong if we want to claim back the lands that were taken from us.

Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement[edit]

Measures the extent to which the individual perceives they have the personal resources required to engage appropriately with other Māori in Māori social and cultural contexts. These personal resources include the ability to speak and understand Te Reo Māori, knowledge of Tikanga Māori and Maraeetiquette, and the ability to articulate heritage confidently (e.g., recite whakapapa).

A high score on this scale would reflect how comfortable and accepted the individual feels when they are among other Māori or in situations which require the active expression of Māori customary knowledge (traditional knowledge) and ways of doing things (such as participating in powhiri and tangihanga). This would also reflect the extent to which the individual is able to articulate and express their Māori identity by engaging in traditional Māori cultural protocols, values and practices.

Sample Cultural Efficacy and Active Identity Engagement items[edit]

• I don't know how to act like a real Māori on a marae. (reverse coded)
• I can't do Māori cultural stuff properly. (reverse coded)
• I can't do Māori culture or speak Māori. (reverse coded)
• I know how to act the right way when I am on a marae.
• I'm comfortable doing Māori cultural stuff when I need to.
• I have a clear sense of my Māori heritage and what it means for me.
• I try to korero (speak) Māori whenever I can.
• I sometimes feel that I don't fit in with other Māori. (reverse coded)

Spirituality[edit]

Measures engagement with, and belief in, certain Māori concepts of spirituality. This relates primarily to feeling a strong connection with ancestors, Māori traditions, the sensation and experience of waahi tapu (sacred places), and a strong spiritual attachment and feeling of connectedness with the land. This dimension is Māori-specific and is based in unique Māori concepts of spirituality.

Sample Spirituality items[edit]

• I believe that Tupuna (ancient ancestors) can communicate with you if they want to.
• I don't believe that Māori spiritual stuff. (reverse coded)
• I believe that my Taha Wairua (my spiritual side) is an important part of my Māori identity.
• I can sense it when I am in a Tapu place.
• I can sometimes feel my Māori ancestors watching over me.
• I have never felt a spiritual connection with my ancestors. (reverse coded)
• I think Tapu is just a made up thing. It can't really affect you. (reverse coded)
• I feel a strong spiritual association with the land.

Interdependent Self-concept[edit]

Measures the extent to which the concept of the self-as-Māori is defined by virtue of relationships with other Māori people, rather than being defined solely as a unique and independent individual. This portion of the scale assesses a constitutive representation or belief-based component about what it means to 'be'Māori.

Māori are more likely to experience self-conceptualization in terms of important relationships.^[4] This is manifest by a tendency for individuals to see their identity as inherently linked to relationships with others. The MMM-ICE interdependent self-concept scale also relates to the concept of the independent versus interdependent self that has emerged in cross-cultural psychology.^[5] This link suggests that the concept ofself for many Māori may be inherently linked or embedded in a collectivist identity network (see Collective identity).^[6]

Sample Interdependent Self-concept items[edit]

• My relationships with other Māori people (friends and family) are what make me Māori.
• I consider myself Māori because I am interconnected with other Māori people, including friends and family.
• My Māori identity is fundamentally about my relationships with other Māori.
• For me, a big part of being Māori is my relationships with other Māori people.
• How I see myself is totally tied up with my relationships with my Māori friends and family.
• My Māori identity belongs to me personally. It has nothing to do with my relationships with other Māori. (reverse coded)
• Reciprocity (give-and-take) is at the heart of what it means to be Māori for me.

Authenticity Beliefs[edit]

Measures the extent to which the individual believes that to be a “real” or “authentic” member of the social category Māori, one must display specific (stereotypical) features, knowledge, and behavior, as opposed to the belief that Māori identity is fluid rather than fixed and is produced through lived experience.

A high score on this scale therefore represents a rigid and inflexible construction of the essentialised characteristics that determine an ‘authentic’ Māori identity. This relates to various (often Pākehāconstructed) definitions of Māori 'race', such as blood quantum or appearance.^[7][8] A low score on this scale, in contrast, reflects the belief that Māori identity is fluid rather than fixed, and produced through lived experience.

Sample Authenticity Beliefs items[edit]

• You can always tell true Māori from other Māori. They're real different.
• I reckon that true Māori hang out at their marae all the time.
• True Māori always do a karakia (prayer) before important events.
• You can tell a true Māori just by looking at them.
• Real Māori put their whanau first.
• To be truly Māori you need to understand your whakapapa and the history of your people.
• You can be a real Māori even if you don't know your Iwi. (reverse coded)
• You can be a true Māori without ever speaking Māori. (reverse coded)

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
2. Jump up^ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
3. Jump up^ Tajfel, H. & Turner J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior . In S. Worchel (Ed.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
4. Jump up^ Love, C. (2004). Understanding social wellbeing. Māori contributions. Social Policy Research and Evaluation conference, Wellington, November 2004.
5. Jump up^ Kashima, E.S., & Hardie, E.A. (2000). The development and validation of the relational, individual, and collective self-aspects (RIC) scale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 19-48.
6. Jump up^ Harrington, L., & Liu, J.H. (2002). Self enhancement and attitudes toward high achievers: A bicultural view of the independent and interdependent self. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 37-55.
7. Jump up^ Webster, S. (1998), Patrons of Māori culture: power, theory and ideology in the Māori renaissance, Dunedin: University of Otago Press.
8. Jump up^ Wall, M. (1997). Stereotypical Constructions of the Māori Race in the Media. New Zealand Geographer, 53, 40-45.
9. Jump up^ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
10. Jump up^ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Māori cultural efficacy and subjective well-being: A psychological model and research agenda. Social Indicators Research, 103, 379–398. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9705-5
11. Jump up^ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
12. Jump up^ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). The Multi-Dimensional Model of Māori Identity and Cultural Engagement. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 39, 8–28.
13. Jump up^ Houkamau, C. A., & Sibley, C. G. (2011). Māori cultural efficacy and subjective well-being: a psychological model and research agenda. Social Indicators Research, 103, 379-398

The association between Maori Cultural Identity & Various Risk Factors: What the Christchurch Health Study Shows

The Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS) has been in existence for 35 years. During this time they have followed the health, education and life progress of a group of 1,265 children born in the Christchurch (New Zealand) urban region during mid 1977. This cohort has now been studied from infancy into childhood, adolescence and adulthood. The data gathered over the course of the study now comprises some 50 million characters of information describing the life history of this cohort. The study has published over 400 scientific papers, reports, books and book chapters describing the 30 year life history of the CHDS cohort.

The study has enabled the analysis of data on people of Maori ethnicity. They have written a number of articles that examine the association between Maori cultural identity (which is really ethinicity) and various risk factors.

Here are abstracts of some pieces of research by 

Dannette Marie

Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin
and School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, UK

David M. Fergusson
Joseph M. Boden
Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago
Christchurch School of Medicine and Health Sciences

1) Maori Cultural identity and pregnancy/parenthood by age 20: evidence from a New Zealand birth cohort

Ethnic differences in fertility and timing of role transition to parenthood have been the focus of extensive research. The present study examined the associations between ethnic identity and pregnancy/parenthood by age 20 among a longitudinal birth cohort of New Zealanders born in 1977. Those participants of sole Māori identity reported higher rates of both early pregnancy and parenthood than either non-Māori or those of Māori/other ethnic identity. Control for a range of socio-economic and family functioning factors reduced the magnitude of the associations between ethnic identity and pregnancy/parenthood. However, even after controlling for socio-economic and family functioning factors, sole Māori individuals were still at greater risk of pregnancy/parenthood by age 20. Similar results were found for an alternative measure of the extent of Māori identity. It was concluded that higher rates of early pregnancy/parenthood among Māori are associated with factors relating to cultural identity. However, the mechanisms by which cultural identity may be linked to early pregnancy/parenthood are unclear.

http://www.msd.govt.nz/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-policy-journal/spj37/37-cultural-identity-and-pregnancy-parenthood-by-age-20.html

2) Ethnic identification, social disadvantage, and mental health in adolescence/young adulthood: Results of a 25 year longitudinal study

Objective: To examine the role of cultural identity and social disadvantage/childhood adversity in a 

birth cohort of 984 young people studied to the age of 25. Methods: Date were gathered on mental health, cultural identification, socio-economic factors and childhood adversity as part of a longitudinal study of a New Zealand birth cohort (the Christchurch Health and Development Study).

Results: Those with sole Māori identity had rates of disorder that were 1.28 times higher than those of non- Māori; those of Māori/other identity had rates of disorder that were 1.57 times higher than non- Māori. Regression analyses suggested that the elevated rates of mental disorder amongst Māori were largely explained by their higher exposure to socio-economic disadvantage and childhood adversity. However, even after adjustment, being of sole Māori identity was protective factor that reduced rates of mental disorder amongst Māori.

Conclusions The findings of this study suggest that the risk and protective factors associated with the mental health of young Māori involves an interplay between levels of exposure to social disadvantage/childhood adversity and cultural identity, with secure cultural identity being a factor that may mitigate the effects of exposure to adversity

http://www.otago.ac.nz/christchurch/otago014512.pdf

3) The links between ethnic identification, cannabis use and dependence, and life outcomes in a New Zealand birth cohort 

Objective: To examine the role of ethnic identity in cannabis use, and links between ethnic identity, cannabis use and life outcomes, in a birth cohort of over 1000 young people studied to age 25.

Methods: Date were gathered on cultural identification, cannabis use, socio-economic factors, childhood adversity, and a range of life outcomes as part of a longitudinal study of a New Zealand birth cohort (the Christchurch Health and Development Study). 

Results: Those reporting Māori identity had rates of cannabis use and dependence that were significantly (p < .05) higher than rates for non-Māori. Regression analyses suggested that the elevated rates of cannabis use amongst Māori were largely explained by their higher exposure to socio-economic disadvantage and childhood adversity. Further analyses examined the role of cannabis use in the links between ethnicity and a range of life outcomes, including education, income and employment, mental health, criminal offending, and intimate partner violence (IPV). These analyses showed that cannabis use made a small but detectable contribution to rates of Māori disadvantage in life outcomes, with this contribution being most evident in the areas of crime, education, and unemployment.

Conclusions (i) Māori ethnic identification was associated with increased risks of cannabis use and dependence; (ii) the higher rate of cannabis use by Māori could be largely attributed to a combination of socio-economic factors and greater exposure to environmental factors known to influence risk of cannabis use; and (iii) the higher rates of cannabis use by Māori made a small contribution to higher rates of early school leaving, crime, and unemployment amongst Māori.

http://www.otago.ac.nz/christchurch/otago014520.pdf